Global Financial Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Global Financial Management - Essay Example nations have different practices and foreign policies, Ghosn encouraged the building of new production plants across different countries to cut on the costs. Foreign currencies often caused price fluctuations for Nissan Company; production of its equipment and motor vehicles in yen made it vulnerable to fluctuation problem. This is because not all of its foreign customers made their purchases at the same exchange value. Carlos studied the problem and established that the starting of new assembling plants in the foreign countries would save the company from unnecessary costs (Heidrich, 2007). Further, he set a program that would weigh the commodity costs over to the foreign currencies such that Nissan would not entirely bid. It defined its investment into short-term and long-term ones, thus, coming up with definite objectives activities of core interest. To reduce the entire production cost of its vehicles, CEO encouraged to source spares from suppliers; this reduced the costs of employees and further shifted the risks to the suppliers accordingly. However, the practice did not affect much on the commodity cost reduction. Therefore, Nissan set an approach to technological advancements; eventually, this would help to minimize usage of expensive raw materials. The exercise has proved to bring useful increment in profits over the past financial periods. Nissan directly employs a cost shifting policy whereby all costs are periodically set such that whenever there are no changes in the selling price, there are no changes in the purchasing price. The concept that risks exposed Nissan to conflicts of exchange elevates the meaning that it employs measures to maintain interests and put lesser concerns on profitability. Nissan Company merges relatively comfortably with the entire business community. The effective, harmonious environment it poses to its employees facilitates it; company affiliates, for example, Mercedes Benz and Renault, set it above par (Heidrich, 2007).

Biography of Mahatma Gandhi Essay Example for Free

Biography of Mahatma Gandhi Essay The film Gandhi released in 1982 was adopted from the biography of Mahatma Gandhi and unfolds with his fateful assassination of 30th January 1948 as a result of being the go-between on conflicting Muslims and Hindus in India and Pakistan. The film plot quickly goes back to narrating Gandhi’s early life as a practicing attorney. With the setting in South Africa, Gandhi is traveling by train and after he adamantly refusing to surrender his seat in first class coach is thrown out. He is subjected to this segregation because he is an Indian. This provokes him to organize mass protests for banning of all discriminatory acts and an end to these stereotypes in which all protesters are arrested and later released. In the film, Gandhi is propelled by religious virtues and believes all people are equal before God. The British rule had denigrated the Indians limiting their rights to the extent of not acknowledging their marriage laws. For this reason, he endeavors for the achievement of equality through protests, which strongly do not advocate for violence. Exploring on racism and other issues that border on prejudice and stereotypes, the film Gandhi delves on the anonymous group of pushing for mass actions and identified by the common clothing, which ultimately implies they are of particular class. The point of this film endeavors to present the struggles of the Indian people from a generalized perspective. In the film the people are depicted as somehow fanatical and indeed they are justified bearing in mind the kind of life they were pushed to in the context of the colonial subordination. The intense scenes in Gandhi explores on the people’s common life infused with the religious fervor through the advocacy of Gandhi. The cinematic representation in the film of Gandhi is not about presenting the historical Gandhi but the presentation of the life changing circumstances that happened in India. The character of Gandhi does not dwell in his early or private life but dramatizes the public persona that ultimately inspired the Indian people with his realistic and spiritual philosophies. The camera shots are edited to only bring the speeches, notable occasions, and homilies of Gandhi as a leader that helped the masses result to the non-violence protests without giving up even when they were imprisoned for agitating for their freedom and independence. The scenes well packaging depicts Attenborough’s cinematic exploits and the film win an awards for the best pictures. However, the film implies there are moments of Gandhi’s development in politics but does not delve deep in showing them. From the scenes of mass actions, the audience cannot fail to notice the contribution raising the social conscientization, which is imperative for the belief in emancipation. Although the film does not dramatize the transformation experience turning the historical moments in the film as just purely aesthetic, there scenes in the film that treat Indian culture and Gandhi as iconic figure. The low angle and the close-up shots magnifies Gandhi as inspirational leader while the long panning shots help show the masses united against the aggression of the British rule. The mise-en-scene further eclipses the fine details of this biographical film leading to emplotment and characterization in the film. The sounds tracks employed further contextualize film in the Indian culture as well as espousing the euphoria in the social struggle. In conclusion, film Gandhi directed by Attenborough was successful in the biographical genre in which Attenborough’s wit and intellect in depicting Mahatma Gandhi and his leadership role in the non-violent agitation of independence from the British rule. The film is a manifestation of honoring the unique resistance lead by iconic Mahatma Gandhi.

Interrelationship Between Systems of the Human Body

Interrelationship Between Systems of the Human Body Introduction This essay will consider the structure and function of the 11 systems within the human body. It will detail the interrelationship between the nervous system and the musculoskeletal system and between the circulatory system and the lymphatic system. It will then explain the roles of the circulatory and lymphatic systems in the immune response and the role of hormones in metabolism. Human Body Systems The human body is made up of 11 separate but interconnected systems (Sherwood, 2007). These are the skeletal, muscular, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory, nervous, integumentary, immune, endocrine and reproductive systems. The success and survival of the human body is dependent on the ability of separate body systems to work together. The skeletal system provides structure for the human body, stores minerals, produces blood cells and provides protection for delicate organs (Kelly, 2004). 206 bones are connected with ligaments, muscles and tendons, with cartilage, a softer cushion like material, providing protection in jointed areas. Body movements are controlled by the muscular system, with these muscles being connected to bones via tendons (Adams, 2004). Stimulation of these muscles by the nervous system causes contraction and the resulting movement of bones to which they are attached. A number of involuntary muscles ensure the respiratory and circulatory systems continue with contraction of the heart and lungs (Adams, 2004). The heart is central to the circulatory system and acts as to pump blood through arteries, veins and capillaries. The circulatory system is responsible for delivering nutrients and oxygen to cells as well as removing waste products and aiding the immune system through the circulation of whit e blood cells (Jacab, 2006). The immune system is comprised of lymph organs, such as the spleen and thymus, and the skin, all of which are responsible for protecting the body against invading pathogens (Parham, 2005). The circulatory system and the respiratory system are closely interconnected with the latter bringing fresh oxygen into the body through the alveoli of the lungs (Johnson, 2004). The respiratory system is closely connected with the excretory system as it is responsible for the removal of carbon dioxide and other waste gases through exhalation. The excretory system eliminates both solid and liquid wastes in addition to these gaseous products, and is made up of a number of specialist tissues along with the large intestine, bladder, kidneys, rectum, lungs and skin (Sherwood, 2007). The physical and chemical breakdown of food into energy is carried out by the digestive system. This system commences with the mouth, teeth and salivary glands then passes through the oesophagus to the stomach and small intestine for digestion. The liver, pancreas and large intestine are also involved, through the production of digestive enzymes and bile and the processing of nutrients (Windelspecht, 2004). The nervous system is responsible for sending messages to and from the brain through neurons. The nervous system controls all bodily functions by sending electrochemical signals through the neural network (Llamas, 1998). The endocrine system acts as a communication network but uses hormones as chemical messengers which travel through the bloodstream (Klosterman, 2009). The hormones have specific target organs and carry signals to start or stop performing a specific function. Finally, the reproductive system is responsible for the production of children and reproductive hormones cause our bodies to develop into sexual maturity. Relationship between the nervous and musculoskeletal system Muscle is a contractile tissue that can be histologically divided into three types. These are: striated or skeletal muscle, which are under direct nervous control; cardiac muscle, which is also striated but is a specialist form that is confined specifically to the heart; and smooth or visceral muscle, which is not under direct nervous control (Nair and Peate, 2013). This latter form can be found in the walls of blood vessels and the alimentary tract and in arrector pili. Smooth muscle is usually in the form of flat sheets and forms circular and longitudinal layers, or can be arranged as a sphincter in order to control passage through a tube, for example the anus (Ikebe, 1996). Skeletal muscle is usually attached to two separate bones via tendon, fleshy or aponeurosis connections. Muscle action control is carried out by the nervous system (Stein, 1982). Contact between nerves and muscles often occurs through chemical stimulus conveyed by motor end plates, which instruct muscles to contract. Signals can also be sent through tendons via specific receptors that are able to measure the stretch of the tendon (Stein, 1982). Messages from nerves are referred to as efferent when they take a message to a specific tissue and afferent when they are taking the message to the spinal cord and brain (Craig, 2005). As such the nervous system comprises two separate but combined systems. These are the central and peripheral nervous systems, with the former being made up of the brain and spinal cord, and the latter comprising the remaining neural network (Cervero, 1988). This neural network comprises 12 pairs of head nerves connected to the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves connected to the spinal cord. Nerves which transfer information from receptors within the body to the ce ntral nervous system are sensoric nerves, whilst nerves that transport information from the CNS to muscle fibres are motoric nerves (Cervero, 1988). As such, the peripheral nervous system comprises collections of nerves, their insulating myelin sheaths, Schwann cells and connective tissue. The majority of these nerve cells are able to carry out efferent and afferent cell processes (Craig, 2005). Figure 1 shows the organisation of a neuron, with the body being the axon and the smaller projections being known as dendrites. The neuron uses the dendrites to obtain and pass information from and to other neurons (Spruston, 2008). The axon passes the information to other cells particularly muscle cells. The information is then passed along the neuron through voltage changes within the cell membrane. This is known as the action potential (Bean, 2007). Information transfer between individual nerve cells occurs through chemical agents which are released when the action potential has reached the end of an axon.

The Argument of Romans Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Wrath of God Revealed   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul began his argument of Romans by proving that the Gentiles are sinners before God. Although God has revealed His truth to them, they have suppressed it, resulting in the darkness of their inner man and rebellion against God to the point of worshipping animals (1:18-23). As a result God gave them over to do the desires of their heart (1:24, 26): idolatry (1:25) and homosexuality (1:26-27). Seeing that they had no desire to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a depraved mind to do every sort of evil (1:28-31). The Jews Condemned Judgement According to Works   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul also addressed the Jews specifically warning them that if God judged the Gentiles who suppressed the revelation they had received, the Jews should not believe that they would escape the judgement of God simply because they had received the Law of Moses. These Jews were judging others for things that they did themselves, thinking they would escape punishment because they were Jews (2:1-3). Paul warned that they were storing up God’s wrath against themselves because they would not repent for their sins (2:4-5). God rewards or punishes individuals based on their works, not on their ethnic background or on their knowledge of the Law (2:6-13). Paul argued that the Gentile’s conscience would serve as the basis for their judgement (2:14-16) and the Law would serve as the basis for judgement for the Jew. Circumcision of the Heart   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul continued to condemn the Jew for feeling superior to the Gentiles because of their entrustment to the special revelation of the Law, even though the whole time they were being hypocrites by not living by the Law themselves (2:17-22). They were dishonoring God and giving the Gentiles reason to blaspheme God (2:23-24). Some thought that being circumcised justified their actions, but Paul made it clear that the Law only had value to those who lived by it, not to those who simply possessed it (2:25). If the uncircumcised lived by the Law, his actions would make it as though he was circumcised, and he would be able to judge the circumcised who only profess the Law (2:26-27). To be a true Jew is not only a matter of lineage but also a matter of having circumcision of the heart and whose praise comes from God rather than man (2:28-29). Therefo... ...5:1-6). Instead of rejecting one another over differences of opinion, the Jews and Gentiles were to accept each other, seeing that both groups of people are involved in God's plan (15:7-13). Reason for Paul’s Delay in Coming to Rome Salutation's to many people at Rome   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although Paul was convinced of the churches spiritual maturity, he wrote to them to explain his reason for not coming to them sooner, and expressed his future travel plans, which included a trip to Rome (15:17-24). This trip would take place after he delivered the collection he was gathering to the saints at Jerusalem (15:25-29); a trip that Paul asked the Romans to help him with in prayer (15:30-33). Having finished his exhortations and commands, Paul finished his epistle by sending greetings to many individuals at the church in Rome (16:1-16), warning of false-teachers (16:17-20), sending greeting from his fellow-laborers (16:21), and giving glory to the God who was able to strengthen the church, and disclosed the mystery of the church to bring many to faith (16:25-27). WORKS CITED Baker, Bruce. Romans, class notes. Fall 2001 King James Study Bible, The. Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1988.

Corporate Irresponsibility and Corporate Social Responsibility: Competing Realities

Social Responsibility Journal Emerald Article: Corporate irresponsibility and corporate social responsibility: competing realities Brian Jones, Ryan Bowd, Ralph Tench Article information: To cite this document: Brian Jones, Ryan Bowd, Ralph Tench, (2009),†Corporate irresponsibility and corporate social responsibility: competing realities†, Social Responsibility Journal, Vol. 5 Iss: 3 pp. 300 – 310 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. doi. org/10. 108/17471110910977249 Downloaded on: 14-10-2012 References: This document contains references to 45 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 3 other documents To copy this document: [email  protected] com Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write f or and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information.About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. com With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download.Corporate irresponsibility and corporate social responsibility: competing realities Brian Jones, Ryan Bowd and Ralph Tench Brian Jones is a Senior Lecturer, Ryan Bowd is a Senior Lecturer and Ralph Tench is Professor in Communications Edu cation, all based at Leeds Business School, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK. Abstract Purpose – Building on the work of Carroll this article attempts to unravel, explore and explain corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a theoretical construct that has implications and consequences for corporate governance in particular, and more generally for the economy, business and society.It aims to extend Carroll’s work on de? nitional constructs by re-examining some of the theoretical frameworks that underpin, inform and guide CSR. Design/methodology/approach – Carroll identi? ed different levels, or a pyramid, of CSR and these are outlined and the advantages and disadvantages of a pyramid, levels-based approach discussed. The main contributions of this article lies is in its exploration of corporate social irresponsibility (CSI) as a concept in contrast to CSR.Bowd, Jones and Tench’s CSI-CSR model is described, explained, analysed and used as a concept ual tool to make the theoretical move from a pyramid or level-based approach to a more dynamic framework of analysis. Findings – The proposition that CSI is better suited to a shareholder business model and CSR sits more comfortably with a stakeholder business model is examined. It is contested that people often wrongly equate CSR with irresponsible corporate actions. The CSI-CSR model establishes a theoretical framework around which grounded empirical research can be undertaken, applied and on which it can be reported.Research limitations/implications – This is a new area of research that addresses a gap in the literature and puts forward innovative theoretical models. Discussing the concept of irresponsibility makes for an interesting theoretical move. It questions the idea that corporations and business per se are always or necessarily socially responsible. Originality/value – In looking at and developing existing theoretical models, concepts and frameworks a nd exploring their merits, shortcomings and limitations, the article will be of interest and relevance to the business and academic communities.If there is such a thing as CSR then the implication is that there is such a thing as CSI and it is on this issue that this article seeks to promote and stimulate discussion. Keywords Corporate social responsibility, Business ethics Paper type Research paper Introduction Corporations, their activities and governance have long been of interest to management and social scientists (see for example, Sampson, 1983). As it has gained a higher pro? le on the political, economic and business agendas in recent years (see for example, www. csr. gov. k; Commission of the European Communities, 2001, 2002), corporate social responsibility (CSR) has received increased attention from academics (see Whetten et al. , 2002; Arpan, 2005; Evuleocha, 2005; Riese, 2007; Birch, 2008). Corporate governance can be de? ned in a narrow and a broad way. For those who d e? ne it narrowly corporate governance is largely concerned with board level management issues. Reporting on the situation in the UK the Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance (1992, p. 15) described the term as ‘‘the system by which companies are directed and controlled’’.Such a narrow de? nition, adopting and advocating as it does a top The authors would like to thank David Crowther and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments in developing this paper. PAGE 300 j SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL j VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009, pp. 300-310, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1747-1117 DOI 10. 1108/17471110910977249 down approach to management, serves to demonstrate by example the inherent weaknesses of a command and control managerial style. Adopting both a bottom up and top down approach to management can better facilitate progress in regards to CSR.Corporate governance is at least in part about managerial compliance with legal requi rements surrounding CSR. Accepting the above, a more broad based de? nition might suggest that corporate governance permeates every level of the organisation, its activities and actual day-to-day operational workings. CSR is not con? ned to management but affects the whole organisation and its stakeholders (for a discussion of the stakeholder model of the corporation please see Donaldson and Preston, 1995; Cornelissen, 2004). This article adopts a broad-based de? nition of corporate governance. ‘Corporate citizenship’’ is a term commonly used in the same debates. There is lack of agreement on a common universal standardised de? nition of CSR and as a result there is confusion and overlap in the plethora of terms used (see Nielsen and Thomsen, 2007, p. 25) This article helps de? ne elements of CSR, thus aids understanding of the term and in so doing can better inform strategies for communication (Demetrious, 2008). CSR and corporate governance and citizenship are increasingly debated academic issues (see, for example, Schleifer and Vishny (1997); www. csr. gov. uk).Much of the emphasis has been placed upon businesses and business people to act in a more socially responsible manner and to acknowledge that shareholders are only one of a number of business stakeholders (Letza et al. , 2004). New and innovative ways to address and deal with issues emerging from the CSR and corporate governance agendas are increasingly being sought. This article stresses the difference between corporate social irresponsibility (CSI) and CSR and contests that the dualistic (or CSI-CSR bi-polar) model allows for greater clarity and understanding of the concepts that constitute and de? ne these terms.It is suggested that CSI is a term better suited to describing the workings of the ‘‘old’’ shareholder business model (Friedman, 1962) and that CSR is more applicable to the workings of the new and emerging stakeholder business model (Freeman, 1984). The CSI-CSR model allows for discussion and positioning of issues around CSR. Communication about issues of social responsibility (Demetrious, 2008) vary according to whether it is irresponsible or responsible corporate action being reported. A range of internal and external variables (see Figure 1), for example new technology, impact on businesses, what they do and how they perform.Such issues or variables may contain differing degrees of responsible and irresponsible actions and activities. On one issue a corporation might have exemplary behavior but on another it may perform poorly and need corrective action; for example, a business may have good policies, practices and procedures with regards to issues of diversity and equal opportunities but may be weak in terms of its commitment to Figure 1 CSI-CSR dichotomous model VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 301 j j addressing pollution and environmental concerns. The ways in which CSI and CSR issues are commu nicated differ.Quite simply responsible actions are, or ought to be trumpeted and irresponsible actions should be acknowledged. This is not always so. Some companies doing well in regards to CSR fail to communicate this message effectively or meaningfully. Some companies either knowingly or unknowingly doing badly in regards to CSR, in other words they are at the CSI end of the spectrum, might have their practices exposed and thus be in need of a communication strategy to deal with such an event. The CSR pyramid and de? nitional constructs Corporate social responsibility is de? ned by the British government on their website www. csr. gov. uk/whatiscsr. html as being about how: business takes account of its economic, social and environmental impacts in the way it operates – maximising the bene? ts and minimising the downsides’’ (Crown copyright, 2004). However this de? nition is only one of numerous and in some cases apparently polarised viewpoints of how CSR is de? ned in academic and professional thought (see for example, Carroll, 1979, 1991). Furthermore it has been proposed that CSR can be seen to be a construct that is individual to the stakeholder that de? nes it, and has been referred to as the social contract organisations have with their stakeholders (Bowd et al. 2005). Tullberg (2005) suggested two approaches to CSR; one the ‘‘responsive’’ and the second the ‘‘autonomous’’ approach. The autonomous approach is described as more independent and involves the company ignoring other stakeholders’ opinions to formulate strategy. The responsive approach suggests organisations should aim at being as responsive as possible to the demands emanating from society for them to act responsibly. This approach allows managers to think about the hypothetical public reaction to situations and to consider strategies to deal with them. In carrying out an analysis of CSR de? itions in academic and professional literature Bowd et al. (2006, p. 150) captured a variety of points and attributes that are believed to make up CSR and suggest it involves: . . . proactive community involvement, philanthropy, corporate governance, corporate citizenship, addressing of social issues, a commitment to the quality of its products and services, human rights, health, safety and the environment. . . Carroll (1979, 1991) and Wood (1991) have contributed to building de? nitions of the different levels at which organisations respond to their corporate social responsibilities. These levels of responsibility are de? ed as follows: B Economic level. Organisation produces products and services that society wants and sells them at a pro? t. Legal level. Organisation obeys all the laws and rules applied by the state. (E. g. tax, regulation, etc. ) Ethical level. Organisation views it as its responsibility to satisfy society’s expectations of business to go beyond basic legal requirements and do what is just and fair, and their practice is re? ective of this. Discretionary level. Organisation goes beyond stakeholder views of what is just and fair, and is an exemplary corporate citizen (adapted from Carroll (1979, 1991)).B B B It is clear from the list above that Carroll’s (1991) pyramid has at its base starting point the economy and economic performance. This is seen as pivotal and from this the second level concerned as it is with the law and legal rights, duties, rules and obligations are built. The third level is focused on business ethics in a wide stakeholder context. Finally the discretionary level involves philanthropy and this is where an organisation typically goes beyond its everyday expected duty and is thus deemed to be a good corporate citizen. Carroll (1991, p. 2) cautions that: No metaphor is perfect, and the CSR pyramid is no exception. It is intended to portray that the total CSR of business comprises distinct components that, taken together, con stitute the whole. Though the components have been treated as separate concepts for discussion purposes, they PAGE 302 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j are not mutually exclusive and are not intended to juxtapose a ? rm’s economic responsibilities with its other responsibilities. These points remain relevant to the circumstances of the 21st century.Nevertheless, Carroll’s (1991) model can be critiqued on a number of grounds. Firstly in adopting and applying a level based pyramid approach it appears as a staged hierarchy in which movement is based on ? xed criteria. It is contested here that this is not necessarily the case and that the concept of a levels based approach and ? xed criteria can act as a hindrance to further developing knowledge and understanding. Secondly the dynamism that characterises the social, economic and business world is only partially captured by the CSR pyramid.At times, like all models Carroll’s pyramid appears as a t heoretical abstract removed from the complex realities of the world it seeks to explain. Despite these criticisms Carroll’s (1991) pyramid of corporate social responsibility does have varying degrees of theoretical and practical utility. The application of the model, together with the context in which it operates and an understanding of what it seeks to achieve at both the abstract and practical levels are in a number of respects crucial in developing knowledge, making sense of and interpreting the world.The model is useful as it aids understanding of CSR, the issues that pertain to it and can therefore help improve communication. The model helps unravel the concept, establishes key elements and distinguishes itself in its exploration of CSR. For this alone Carroll’s (1979, 1991) pyramid deserves plaudits. Nevertheless, despite the merits of the model it is suggested here (see Figure 2) that it can be improved by addressing the staged level based hierarchy to make it a more ? uid concept better able to adapt to a world in a state of near perennial ? ux.Change is constant and theoretical models are required to re? ect this universal truism. The CSI-CSR framework The CSI-CSR model As previously discussed in relation to the various component parts and models available, CSR can mean different things to different people. It might be suggested that a clear de? nition of the term should be provided for policy makers, practitioners, activists, business and the community. This issue has already been alluded to in terms of the existing plethora of de? nitions in existence and it is unlikely that one unifying de? ition will be agreed upon given the competing agendas of different stakeholders. Figure 2 CSI-CSR environmental dynamic model VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 303 j j It is contested here that traditionally CSR has been confused and equated with CSI. For many, CSR is understood as, or de? ned in relation to, CSI; for example dis cussion of social responsibility issues often occurs when things are perceived as having ‘‘gone wrong’’ such as the recent Bear Stearns and Northern Rock crises.It is therefore necessary at the level of policy and practice and important at a conceptual level to separate out and de? ne the terms. CSI can be de? ned in relation to the issues that encompass it. For the key differences between CSI and CSR please see Table I. CSI is about being reactive as opposed to proactive in addressing corporate issues and the ways and means by which they relate to wider society. At its extreme CSI may entail breaking the law (e. g. Conrad Black, Robert Maxwell, Ernest Saunders). Companies such as Enron, Worldcom, and amongst others Union Carbide typify CSI.Getting it wrong in relation to CSR, in other words operating in a CSI manner, can have disastrous social, economic and business consequences as the aforementioned companies demonstrate so well. The bi-polar model develo ped here is not a one-dimensional linear process, as depicted below, in which investors, producers and consumers move from being irresponsible to being socially responsible. The trajectory proposed in Figure 3, based as it is on the Whig view of history in which the march of progress is seen as inevitable, is an ideal to be striven towards. The Whig interpretation of history has been described by Marwick (1989, p. 05) as: Table I CSR-CSI positions CSI Environmental degradation and pollution are inevitable and little if anything can or should be done Employees are a resource to be exploited Minimal community consultation and involvement Failure to comply, or reluctant and only basic compliance with legislation pertaining to CSR Ethical issues, if relevant at all are on the periphery of organisational working CSR Environmental degradation and pollution are not inevitable, should not be tolerated and it is important to raise awareness and commit to action Employees are a resource to be valued Maximise opportunities for community consultation and involvement Compliance with, as well as policy and practical actions that go beyond the minimum legislative requirements for CSR Ethical issues are central to and at the heart of organisational working Social exclusion is an inevitable by product of the operation of the Social inclusion helps to correct market inef? ciencies market New technologies should be developed and introduced to the market Governance of companies is best left to shareholders and management Work with suppliers and customers on an unfair basis Pragmatic approach to CSR issues Sustainability de? ned in terms of business survival Pro? is the sole purpose of business and should be achieved at any cost New technologies should be developed, tested, evaluated and if harmless introduced to the market Governance of companies involves shareholders, managers and a wide range of stakeholders including unions, works councils etc Work fairly with suppliers and cu stomers Principled and pragmatic approach to CSR issues Sustainability de? ned in terms of business, environmental and community survival and mutual growth Pro? t is one of many purposes of business and should be achieved, but not at any cost Figure 3 Linear CSI-CSR model PAGE 304 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j . . the view, prevalent in nineteenth century Britain, that history was steady progress towards liberal ideas and institutions. The reality of CSI and CSR is something of a more complex dynamic. It is contested here that CSI and CSR lie at opposite ends of a continuum. On the CSI-CSR continuum individuals, groups and organisations are not static but move between the two extremes. Movement between the positions is two directional and is driven by external environment factors such as legislation, politics, technology, ? nance, economics, culture and such like. One factor may prompt movement towards CSR whilst a counter prevailing factor may prompt movement towards CSI.The dichotomous CSI-CSR framework contains within it an inherent tension that is irreconcilable given that CSR is an ever-evolving concept; for example, the recent move towards bio-fuels intended to address the problem of climate change and global warming is now being called into question as a result of the in? ationary impact it is having on food prices. It is a two way variable process and movement is back, forwards and multi-directional depending on the factors driving the issues. CSI and CSR need to be unpackaged in order to better understand the complex nature of their components, function, operation and practice. The model outlined in Figure 1 depicts the two-way ? ow of CSI and CSR and has the potential to act as a tool for un-packaging and better understanding of the terms.The CSI-CSR model contributes to theoretical analysis and practical description and explanation. Depending on which side of the model businesses choose to operate within CSR can be either a â⠂¬ËœÃ¢â‚¬Ëœcore’’ or ‘‘add on’’ feature. For companies at the left of the spectrum and although there is other recent examples (e. g. Bear Stearns) nothing typi? es this better than Enron, CSR is an ‘‘add on’’ feature to their business operation – an afterthought rather than forethought. For companies at the right of the spectrum, such as the Co-operative Bank in the UK, CSR is a core feature that underpins, informs and guides their business strategy, operation and practice.Corporate communication practitioners could use the model to map and monitor CSR issues as they impact on their organisation. The model can be used in both a reactive and a proactive way. For example management might undertake a mapping and monitoring exercise, in other words a CSR audit, whereby they identify where their organisation lies on the CSI-CSR spectrum according to pro? t, ethical standards, human resources, community involvement and so on. Such an exercise will help practitioners identify areas in which their organisation is performing well with regards to CSR and identify areas for improvement. The model is useful in so far as it allows for the application of theory to communication practice.The CSI-CSR model provides for an analytical approach as opposed to a more prescriptive, staged approach to corporate citizenship (Mirvis and Googins, 2006). Some of the issues impacting on and shaping the changing dynamics of the CSI-CSR continuum are shown in Figure 1 and given more detail in Table I. Almost inevitably CSI and CSR are ideal types and as such have potential but also limits to their usefulness. As ideal types the two approaches shown in Table I serve to represent the extreme positions. Reality is often a complex mix of CSI and CSR modes of working. In a business, community or organisational setting CSR practice in part depends on various stakeholder requirements, customer and business needs.Whether wit h regards to customers, suppliers or the wider community a mix of CSI and CSR mode of working can operate comfortably alongside and within the various functional areas of management and the actual practices of the business itself. The CSI versus CSR framework allows managerial practitioners, theoreticians and others to discuss, contextualise and re? ect on their own practice in relation to CSR. In itself the model does not provide answers but as a managerial tool of analysis it allows for exploration of issues that may otherwise be ignored, or simply forgotten. Rochlin and Googins (2005, p. 2) write: Increasingly, businesses are becoming exposed to the risks associated with the gap between what they say and what they do. ‘What they say’’ might be equated with CSR and ‘‘what they do’’ might be equated with CSI. There is a gap between management rhetoric and reality as it is experienced and lived on the ground. The CSI-CSR framework allows management to acknowledge company VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 305 j j mistakes, errors, as well as misjudgements and thereby help minimise reputation and substantive business damage from the rhetoric-reality gap. Increasingly business recognises the need to move from an irresponsible to a responsible position on CSR/corporate citizenship issues, such as community involvement. The CSI-CSR model can be described as a conduit of corporate governance in that it acts as an enabler to action.As a problem-solving tool it can assist planning and thus help facilitate a potentially better managed, more productive and socially responsible, pro? table business. As previously mentioned a CSR audit can help pre-empt and react to problems and in this sense the model acts as a problem-solving tool by identifying business and organisational areas for improvement. Having identi? ed areas that need addressing the business or organisation needs to establish a CSR plan of actio n to limit potential damage and maximise potential gain. The plan will need to be monitored and reviewed and ought to have short, medium and long-term aims and objectives.In all of this both internal and external communication is central to deliver effective corporate CSR change. It is suggested here that CSI is better suited to the workings of the ‘‘old’’ shareholder business model with the CSR approach being better suited to the needs of the new stakeholder business model (see for example, Hutton, 1995, 1999). The ‘‘old’’ shareholder business model (Friedman, 1962) with its overwhelming focus on pro? t and little or no regard to issues such as the environment is prone to the adoption of irresponsible business practices, a current example being the case of American banks and the sub-prime lending crisis. In contrast, the ‘‘new’’ stakeholder business model (Freeman, 1984) focuses on pro? but also seeks to address other issues of concern. As such, the CSI versus CSR model is representative of both broader and deeper structural change within the body politic, economy and society. Hutton et al. (1996, p. 88) write: Any civilised community should be justly concerned to create as much wealth as it can, to ensure that income and wealth are fairly shared and that centres of private and public power are properly accountable. The aim must be to build a free, moral, socially cohesive society based on universal membership, social inclusion and organised around the market economy. This is what we mean by the stakeholder economy and society.It can be argued that there has been a paradigmatic shift from a business model and way of working in which shareholder interests and issues such as return on investment reign supreme, to one whereby different stakeholders compete to in? uence and shape the business agenda, so that shareholder interests are simply one of many. Holding this thought in mind anot her way of conceptualising the CSI-CSR model and its relationship with internal and external environmental factors is detailed below. Figure 2 serves to show that internal and external variables as well as mixing with and affecting each other also interact and impact on the CSI-CSR continuum. The model conceived here is a rotating sphere intersected by its axis, the continuum. Business does not operate in a vacuum, it has rights as well as obligations and has competing needs to meet and address.Rights (see, amongst others, Locke, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1979 and Steiner, 1994), obligations (see Turner, 1986) and needs (see Ignatieff, 1990) change over time and between contexts. Customer needs do not always equate with supplier needs, for example in terms of delivery of goods. Compared to even the relatively recent past businesses today have obligations to address environmental and sustainability issues, for example by sourcing all or part of their energy needs from renewable sources. Busi nesses do have a right and are expected as well as encouraged to make a pro? t but not at any cost, for example by the use of child labour. Increasingly businesses have to meet increasing public expectations and to address legal obligations around environmental and sustainability issues. The need of business to make pro? can, and does at times, coincide as well as con? ict with its stated ethical aims and objectives. Competing stakeholders with differing needs, rights and obligations have to be managed to ensure con? ict is minimised, the business survives, grows and is able to meet its commitments to CSR. How needs, rights and obligations are prioritised and met in the context of changing internal and external environmental factors can determine business, life, death and growth. Rotating as it does on its axis serves to demonstrate that external as well as internal factors can at PAGE 306 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j times buffet direction of the sphere and m ovement on the axis.Equally so, movement on the CSI-CSR continuum, or axis, can affect change and direction in the external and internal environment. Thus far the article has proposed a move away from a de? nition, explanation and analysis of CSR as a staged hierarchy; as espoused by Carroll (1991) in his pyramid of corporate social responsibility. Here, an alternative conceptualisation is suggested based on the notion that CSI should be separated out from CSR to facilitate greater understanding of the terms, their meaning, nature and purpose. Issues interspersed and feeding into the CSI-CSR continuum are affected by internal and external environmental factors. Such factors give shape, form and context to corporate governance and CSR.Placing Carroll’s (1991) pyramid of corporate social responsibility in a sphere (see above, Figure 2) as well as on and intersected by the CSI-CSR axis makes for an interesting theoretical and conceptual move. Putting the pyramid metaphorically i n the sphere recognises that the levels of responsibility are intrinsic to the way in which CSR is conceived. However, in suggesting that the pyramid and by implication the levels, can be rotated the inference is that the levels are neither hierarchical or static but ? uid and necessary to the other. In this model the levels move and take on differing degrees of importance according to internal and external environmental factors and the issues impacting on the directional movement of the CSI-CSR continuum.Contextual factors mean that economic, legal, ethical and discretionary levels change position inside the pyramid and that one cannot be fully understood without reference to the other. There is almost structured chaos within the model and thus lends itself to ideas emanating from chaos and complexity theories (see for example Marion, 1999; Byrne, 1998; Rowley and Roevens, 2000). The signi? cance of this article’s theoretical contribution is that it addresses the discussion and de? nition of CSR. By introducing the concept of CSI it counteracts the tendency to treat the concept of CSR as a one-dimensional single entity and unpacks the terms to reveal multi-faceted layers of complexity that are shaped by context. The idea of corporations acting irresponsibly is theoretically validated by the arguments posited here.As an analytical tool the CSI-CSR typology is of use to academics and practitioners as it facilitates the development of pro-active as well as re-active internal and external communication strategies. It is increasingly the case that CSR and CSI are issues about which corporations are required and expected to communicate. To do this effectively tools of analysis are required and herein lies the unique contribution of this article. Concluding remarks This article has explored and analysed CSR and its antithesis CSI. That businesses act both irresponsibly and responsibly is highlighted in the distinction made by the terms. The terms themselves a re often con? ated and a greater distinction ought to be drawn between CSR and CSI.It is wrong to equate irresponsible business practice with CSR. Writing about the issue of social responsibility Milton Friedman (1962:133) asserted that it was ‘‘fundamentally subversive’’. More than 40 years on since making those claims it is interesting to speculate as to how Friedman would describe the concept of CSI. The concept may act as an af? rmation of his original statement and could well be described by some as being ‘‘totally subversive’’. However, this description only tells part of the story, for the reality is that CSI allows for greater understanding and clarity of the processes and practices by which businesses operate in doing good as well as doing wrong.The CSI-CSR framework acts as a tool of support for management to identify issues that may do harm to the business, pre-empt or react to them, and thus not only place the business in a better position to survive but to also better meet customer needs. What some may deem to be a subversive concept is in fact a practical tool of analysis for an increasingly competitive business environment. The CSI-CSR framework enables businesses to better meet existing and emerging needs in a dynamic, highly competitive, ever-changing business environment. The proposed bi-polar, dualistic model enables analysis of CSR business practice and allows for change and measurement to be reported on in terms of a sliding scale of ‘‘doing good’’ as well as ‘‘doing bad’’. As well as operating as a theoretical conceptual model the VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 307 j j roposed framework is also a tool of analysis that can be applied and used to enhance and make more transparent systems and practices of CSR. Analysed at a super? cial, linguistic level CSR is a concept that is hard to disagree with. It has a ‘à ¢â‚¬Ëœwarm’’ and ‘‘positive’’ feel to it and is something to which stakeholders are happy to sign up to in one way, shape or form. The sub-textual message inferred by the term CSR is that corporations are socially responsible. The term CSI challenges this CSR sub-text and poses questions around how corporations communicate these issues. That corporations can act irresponsibly is not something easily refuted.CSI and CSR are politically infused language based terms that surround and are about the roles of business, corporations and the politics and discourse of the workplace. The language used is soothing, calming and designed to ameliorate dissenting points of view. It is about building consent. At the same time however it is important for business to acknowledge when things go wrong in regards to issues of social responsibility, know how to deal with and manage the communication issues surrounding them with a view to mounting a damage limitati on exercise. One term cannot be conceived without the other, they are intertwined, belong to and are about each other. It is suggested here that CSI and CSR are part and parcel of the fabric of the ideal of a free, democratic, stakeholding, capitalist economy and society.As such, they are issues that require debate, monitoring and the engagement of individual and corporate active citizenship (see Marshall, 1963). Communication and dialogue are of critical importance for developing understanding and building knowledge of how to be a good individual and corporate citizen. For some the shift from a CSI to a CSR position is a perceptual rather than a substantive change. This critique of the CSR agenda is the voice of cynicism and belies what for others is an actual change in attitude and business practice. This of course is not to say that more could not be done. Such a critique is not without some merit in so far as CSI, even in today’s ‘‘open’’ and â⠂¬ËœÃ¢â‚¬Ëœtransparent’’ organisations, remains somewhat hidden from view.It should not be forgotten that CSI can impact on and harm companies’ bottom line and it is primarily for this reason that a conspiracy of silence pervades organisations and workplace cultures where irresponsible practices exist. Communication using open and transparent dialogue within organisations can facilitate the breaking of silence around irresponsible corporate practices and might limit future damage and/or create new business opportunities. The majority of companies are keen to embrace CSR issues and of their own volition go beyond legal minimum requirements. Not only do companies want to do well by doing good, but also some want to do good because they believe it to be the right and proper thing to do. Not all businesses are communicating what it is they do in regards to CSR to best effect.Regarding their social responsibility practices a CSI-CSR audit can help businesses identify areas of strength and areas for improvement. In itself such an exercise can act as a useful vehicle of and for communication. It is increasingly recognised that adopting a CSR approach can be both an ethical and pro? table way to manage a business. Ethics and pro? t are not mutually exclusive terms but have a symbiotic relationship in the form of CSR. Though nevertheless, at the end of the day and as Friedman (1962) rightly noted, the purpose of business is to make pro? t. In revisiting the work by Carroll (1979, 1991, 1999) and his exposition of CSR this article has sought to build on and further develop the concept, from both an academic and practitioner perspective.In applying the CSI-CSR framework as a legitimate tool of application and analysis it has established the premise that business does not always act in a responsible manner and does at times, given a particular set of circumstances, act irresponsibly. The import of the CSI-CSR model is in establishing this idea and rec ognising that from a theoretical and communication practice based world viewpoint action can be taken to address and minimise opportunities for irresponsible corporate actions and to maximise opportunities for responsible social behavior. The broad de? nition of good, ethically driven corporate governance strives towards CSR and away from CSI. Behaving in a CSR way makes sound business sense, as Enron, Worldcom and others bear testimony.The challenge for the future (http://www. foresight. gov. uk/) is to move mindsets away from CSI and to CSR proper. PAGE 308 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j References Arpan, L. M. (2005), ‘‘Integration of information about corporate social performance’’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 83-98. Birch, D. (2008), ‘‘Analysis of CSR: principles and concepts’’, Social Responsibility Journal, Vol. 4 Nos 1-2, pp. 129-35. Bowd, R. , Bowd, L. and Har ris, P. (2006), ‘‘Communicating corporate social responsibility: an exploratory case study of a major UK retail centre’’, Journal of Public Affairs,, May, pp. 147-55. Bowd, R. , Jones, B. nd Tench, R. (2005), CSR and the Media, Summary Research Report, Leeds Metropolitan University and Connectpoint, Leeds. Byrne, D. (1998), Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences: An Introduction, Routledge, London. Carroll, A. (1979), ‘‘A three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate performance’’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 497-505. Carroll, A. (1991), ‘‘The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: toward the moral management of organizational stakeholders’’, Business Horizons, July-August. Carroll, A. (1999), ‘‘Corporate social responsibility: evolution of a de? nitional construct’’, Business and Society, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 68-95. Commission of the European Communiti es (2001), Promoting a European Framework for Corporate Social Responsibility, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels. Commission of the European Communities (2002), Communication from the Commission Concerning; Corporate Social Responsibility: A Business Contribution to Sustainable Development, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels. Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance (1992), Cadbury Report, Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance, London. Cornelissen, J. (2004), Corporate Communications, Theory and Practice, Sage, London. Demetrious, K. 2008), ‘‘Corporate social responsibility, new activism and public relations’’, Social Responsibility Journal, Vol. 41 Nos 1/2, pp. 104-19. Donaldson, T. and Preston, L. E. (1995), ‘‘Stakeholder theory of the corporation: concepts, evidence and implications’’, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 65-91. Evuleocha, S. U. (2005), ‘‘Managing indigenous relations corporate social responsibility in a new age of activism’’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 328-40. Freeman, R. E. (1984), Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Pitman, Boston, MA. Friedman, M. (1962), Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Hutton, W. 1995), The State We’re in, Vintage, Colchester. Hutton, W. (1999) in Goldblatt, D. (Ed. ), The Stakeholding Society: Writings on Politics and Economics, Polity Press, Cambridge. Hutton, W. , Field, F. , Kay, J. , Marquand, D. and Gray, J. (1996), ‘‘Tony and the Tories: this is what we mean’’, Observer, 7 July 1996, pp. 88-92. Ignatieff, M. (1990), The Needs of Strangers, The Hogarth Press, London. Letza, S. , Sun, X. and Kirkbride, J. (2004), ‘‘Shareholding versus stakeholding: a critical review of corporate governance’’, Corporate Governan ce, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 242-62. Locke, J. (1958) in von Leyden, W. (Ed. ), Essays on the Law of Nature, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Locke, J. 1959), An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 2 vols, Dover, New York, NY. Locke, J. (1960) in Laslett, P. (Ed. ), Two Treatises of Government, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Locke, J. (1979) in Sherman, C. L. 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(2005), The Value Proposition for Corporate Citizenship, The Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA. Rowley, R. M. and Roevens, J. J. 2000), Organise with Chaos: Putting Modern Chaos Theory to Work in Your Organisation, Management Books, Chalford. Sampson, A. (1983), The Sovereign State: Secret History of International Telephone and Telegraph, Coronet Books, Philadelphia, PA. Schleifer, A. and Vishny, R. W. (1997), ‘‘A survey of corporate governance’’, The Journal of Finance, Vol. 52, pp. 727-83. Steiner, H. (1994), An Essay on Rights, Blackwell, Oxford. Tullberg, J. (2005), ‘‘What should companies be responsible for? ’’, Business Ethics: A European View, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 261-3. Turner, B. S. (1986), Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate over Reformism, Allen and Unwin, London. Wood, D. 1991), ‘‘Corporate social performance revisited’’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 758-69. Whetten, D. , Rands, G. and Godfrey, P. (2002), ‘‘What are the responsibilities of business to society’’, in Pettigrew, A. , Howard, T. and Whittington, R. (Eds), Handbook of Strategy and Management, Sage, pp. 373-408. Further reading Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College and The US Chamber of Commerce Center for Corporate Citizenship (2005), The State of Corporate Citizenship in the US Business Perspectives in 2005, The Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA. European Commission (2004), European Multistakeholder Forum o n CSR, Final Report, 29 June.European Commission, Employment and Social Affairs, Industrial relations and industrial change, European Commission Directorate-General for Employment and Social Affairs (2004), ABC of the Main Instruments of Corporate Social Responsibility, European Commission. Little, A. D. (2003), The Business Case for Corporate Responsibility, Beacon Press, Uck? eld. Corresponding author Brian Jones can be contacted at: b. t. [email  protected] ac. uk To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email  protected] com Or visit our web site for further details: www. emeraldinsight. com/reprints PAGE 310 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j

Education in Schools Essay

The Inspectorate wishes to thank the following for the use of photographs: Clonakilty Community College, Clonakilty, Co Cork Saint Mark’s Community School, Tallaght, Dublin 24 Saint Mac Dara’s Community College, Templeogue, Dublin 6W Scoil Barra Naofa, Monkstown, Cork Scoil Nano Nagle and Talbot Senior National School, Clondalkin, Dublin 22 Whitechurch National School, Whitechurch Road, Dublin 16  © 2008 Department of Education and Science ISBN-0-0000-0000-X. Designed by Slick Fish Design, Dublin Printed by Brunswick Press, Dublin Published by Evaluation Support and Research Unit Inspectorate Department of Education and Science Marlborough Street Dublin 1 To be purchased directly from Government Publications Sales Office Sun Alliance House Molesworth Street Dublin 2 or by post from Government Publications Postal Trade Section Unit 20 Lakeside Retail Park Claremorris Co Mayo â‚ ¬20 Contents Foreword Executive summary xi xiii Part 1 Introduction Chapter 1 ICT in primary and post-primary education in Ireland 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3. Introduction Background ICT policy and investment in education 1. 3. 1 1. 3. 2 1. 3. 3 1. 4 1. 4. 1 1. 4. 2 1. 4. 3 1. 4. 4 1. 5 Policy for ICT in education ICT in the curriculum Investment in ICT in education Computers in schools Other ICT equipment in schools Expenditure on ICT and technical support Other areas covered in the census 1 2 3 6 6 9 11 12 12 14 15 16 16 17 18 18 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 27 28 30 30 30 30 30 ICT infrastructure census in schools (2005) Summary Evaluation methods Chapter 2 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 Introduction Approaches to evaluating ICT in schools Overview and aims of the evaluation National survey of primary and post-primary principals and teachers 2. 4. 1 2. 4. 2 2. 4. 3 2. 4. 4 Survey sampling methods Survey research methods Response rate Comparison of respondents and population 2. 5 2. 6 Case-study school evaluations 2. 6. 1 2. 6. 2 Primary schools Post-primary schools Observations during classroom inspections (primary) and subject inspections (post-primary) 27 2. 7 2. 8 On-line evaluation Evaluation outputs and terms 2. 8. 1 2. 8. 2 2. 8. 3. Outputs Junior and senior classes Quantitative terms used in this report iii ICT in Schools Part 2 Chapter 3 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 ICT infrastructure and planning in schools ICT infrastructure in primary and post-primary schools 31 32 33 37 38 41 41 42 45 45 49 53 56 57 59 59 61 64 64 66 69 70 70 72 73 75 79 80 81 90 98 99 99 101 102 102 105. Introduction The ICT advisory service ICT and funding ICT maintenance, technical support, and obsolescence Access to computers 3. 5. 1 3. 5. 2 Access by teachers Access by students Organisation of ICT facilities in case-study primary schools Organisation of ICT facilities in case-study post-primary schools 3. 6. The use of computers in schools 3. 6. 1 3. 6. 2 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9. ICT peripherals Software Use of e-mail 3. 10. 1 3. 10. 2 3. 11. 1 3. 11. 2 The learning platform The school web site Main findings Recommendations ICT planning in primary and post-primary schools 3. 10 The on-line environment 3. 11 Summary of findings and recommendations Chapter 4 4. 1 4. 2 Introduction The planning process 4. 2. 1 4. 2. 2 4. 2. 3 4. 2. 4 The ICT steering committee The ICT co-ordinator The ICT plan The acceptable-use policy Teachers’ professional development Using ICT in classroom and lesson planning and preparation Planning for using ICT in teaching and learning Principals’ priorities for ICT development Teachers’ priorities for ICT development Main findings Recommendations. 4. 3 Implementation of ICT planning 4. 3. 1 4. 3. 2 4. 3. 3 4. 4 Forward planning 4. 4. 1 4. 4. 2 4. 5 Findings and recommendations 4. 5. 1 4. 5. 2 iv Part 3 Chapter 5 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 ICT and teaching and learning in schools ICT and teaching and learning in primary schools 107 108 108 111 111 112 113 114 116 120 126 127 127 127 128 129 130 131 133 134 134 134 135 135 137 139 140 141 141 145 148 149 151 152 153 155 163 167 Introduction Teachers’ ICT qualifications and skills Classroom practice and ICT 5. 3. 1 5. 3. 2 5. 3. 3 5. 3. 4 5. 3. 5 5. 3. 6 5. 3. 7 Planning Frequency of ICT use Organisation of ICT use Focus of ICT use Use of resources and applications in the classroom Quality of provision Provision for students with special educational needs by mainstream class teachers Access to ICT Planning for the use of ICT Frequency of ICT use Focus of ICT use Use of resources and applications Quality of provision 5. 4 ICT in special education 5. 4. 1 5. 4. 2 5. 4. 3 5. 4. 4 5. 4. 5 5. 4. 6 5. 5 5. 6. Assessment Developing ICT in the classroom 5. 6. 1 5. 6. 2 Factors that constrain the development of ICT in the curriculum Factors that facilitate the development of ICT in the curriculum Main findings Recommendations ICT and teaching and learning in post-primary schools 5. 7 Findings and recommendations 5. 7. 1 5. 7. 2 Chapter 6 6. 1 6. 2 Introduction ICT qualifications and skills 6. 2. 1 6. 2. 2 Teachers’ ICT qualifications and skill levels Students’ ICT skill levels Timetabling of dedicated ICT lessons Curriculum and content of dedicated ICT lessons School principals’ support for the use of ICT in the classroom ICT in practice in the classroom Quality of provision 6. 3 Dedicated ICT lessons 6. 3. 1 6. 3. 2 6. 4 Classroom practice and ICT 6. 4. 1 6. 4. 2 6. 4. 3 6. 5 ICT and special educational needs v ICT in Schools 6. 6 6. 7 Assessment Developing ICT in the classroom 6. 7. 1 6. 7. 2 Factors that constrain the development of ICT in the classroom Factors that facilitate the development of ICT in the classroom Main findings Recommendations. 168 168 168 170 172 172 174 6. 8 Findings and recommendations 6. 8. 1 6. 8. 2 Part 4 Chapter 7 7. 1 7. 2 Summary of findings and recommendations Main findings and recommendations 177 178 179 179 181 182 184 184 186 188 188 189 191 194 197 Introduction Main findings 7. 2. 1 7. 2. 2 7. 2. 3 Infrastructure ICT Planning ICT in teaching and learning ICT infrastructure Professional development needs of teachers ICT infrastructure in schools Planning for ICT in schools ICT in teaching and learning 7. 3 Main recommendations for policy-makers and policy advisors 7. 3. 1 7. 3. 2 7. 4 Main recommendations for schools 7. 4. 1 7. 4. 2 7. 4. 3 References Appendix vi Abbreviations. AP AUP BOM CAD CEB CESI CPD DES ECDL EGFSN ERNIST ESI EU FETAC ICD ICT ISC LC LCA LCVP LSRT MLE NCC NCCA NCTE NPADC OECD PCSP PISA SCR SDP SDPI SDPS SDT SESE SESS SIP TIF VEC VLE WSE assistant principal acceptable use policy board of management computer-aided design Commercial Examining Board Computer Studies Society of Ireland continuing professional development Department of Education and Science European Computer Driving Licence Expert Group on Future Skills Needs European Research Network for ICT in Schools of Tomorrow Education Services Interactive (Project). European Union Further Education and Training Awards Council in-career development information and communications technology Information Society Commission Leaving Certificate (Established) Leaving Certificate—Applied Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme learning-support resource teacher managed learning environment National Competitiveness Council National Council for Curriculum and Assessment National Centre for Technology in Education National Policy Advisory and Development Committee Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Primary Curriculum Support Programme Programme for International Student Assessment student-computer ratio school development planning School Development Planning Initiative (Post-primary). School Development Planning Support (Primary) special-duties teacher Social, Environmental and Scientific Education Special Education Support Service Schools Integration Project Telecommunications and Internet Federation Vocational Education Committee virtual learning environment whole-school evaluation vii ICT in Schools Tables Table 1. 1 Table 1. 2 Table 1. 3 Table 2. 1 Table 2. 2 Table 2. 3 Table 2. 4 Table 3. 1 Table 4. 1 Table 4. 2 Table 4. 3. Table 4. 4 Table 4. 5 Table 4. 6 Table 5. 1 Table 5. 2 Table 5. 3 Table 5. 4 Table 5. 5 Table 5. 6 Table 5. 7 Table 5. 8 Table 5. 9 Funding of ICT in education policy initiatives Student-computer ratio (SCR) in each school sector in given years Proportion of schools having at least one fixed and one mobile data projector Comparison of survey sample. and population, primary schools Comparison of survey sample and population, post-primary schools Number and level of lessons observed, post-primary schools Quantitative terms used in the report Awareness and use of NCTE and ICT advisory services among teachers Teachers’ attendance at NCTE and ICT advisory service training courses Professional development preferences of post-primary teachers, by subject Teachers’ use of internet resources in planning and preparation for teaching Primary principals’ views on the strategic development of ICT Post-primary principals’ views on the strategic development of ICT Teachers’ priority areas for the development of ICT Proportion of primary teachers who rated their proficiency in ICT skills as either â€Å"intermediate† or â€Å"advanced†. Proportion of primary teachers who rated their ability in each of three ICT tasks that facilitate teaching and learning as either â€Å"intermediate† or â€Å"advanced† Inspectors’ observations on the use of ICT to facilitate teaching and learning in classrooms Teachers’ use of software and the internet to facilitate learning Most frequently used applications in the teaching of individual curricular areas Applications used by members of special-education support teams to promote the development of skills. Most frequently used applications to promote the development of individual learning priority areas Comparison of inspectors’ ratings of the quality of ICT provision in supporting children with special educational needs in mainstream and special-education support settings Table 5. 10 Table 6. 1 Table 6. 2 Table 6. 3 Sample of inspectors’ comments on the quality of ICT use in special-education support settings Proportion of post-primary teachers who rated their proficiency in ICT skills as either â€Å"intermediate† or â€Å"advanced† Proportions of post-primary teachers who rated their ability in each of three ICT tasks that facilitate teaching and learning as either â€Å"intermediate† or â€Å"advanced† 144 Timetabled dedicated ICT lessons in post-primary schools 149 142 133 132 131 130 113 117 117 111 109 12 13 14 24 25 29 30 36 83 88 93 100 100 102 Inspectors’ comments on the quality of use of ICT observed in teaching and learning 123 viii Table 6. 4 Table 6. 5 Table 6. 6 Table 6. 7 Table 6. 8 Table 6. 9. Commonly taught topics in dedicated ICT lessons Principals’ descriptions of how ICT is used in some subjects Principals’ views on the impact of ICT on teaching and learning Location of lessons observed during subject inspections ICT resources available in the classrooms of lessons observed Use of the internet and software in teaching and learning 151 153 154 155 155 161 Diagrams Fig. 2. 1 Fig. 2. 2 Fig. 2. 3 Fig. 3. 1 Fig. 3. 2 Fig. 3. 3 Fig. 3. 4 Fig. 3. 5 Fig. 3. 6 Fig. 3. 7 Fig. 3. 8 Fig. 3. 9 Fig. 3. 10 Fig. 4. 1 Fig. 4. 2 Fig. 4. 3 Fig. 4. 4 Fig. 4. 5 Fig. 4. 6 Fig. 4. 7 Fig. 4. 8 Fig. 4. 9 Fig. 4. 10 Fig. 4. 11 Fig. 4. 12 Fig. 4. 13 Fig. 5. 1 Fig. 5. 2 Fig. 5. 3 Survey response rates Mainstream lesson observations in primary schools Subjects reviewed at post-primary level Teachers’ ratings of NCTE and ICT advisory services Access to computers by primary teachers Access to computers by post-primary teachers Access to computers by fifth-class students Access to computers by fifth-year students Frequency of use of ICT peripherals by primary teachers Frequency of use of ICT peripherals by post-primary teachers Provision and use of e-mail address by subject taught, post-primary schools. The primary school web site: teachers’ responses The post-primary school web site: teachers’ responses Contents of ICT plans, primary schools Contents of ICT plans, post-primary schools Staff ICT training in primary schools within the previous three years Staff ICT training in post-primary schools within the previous three years Principals’ and teachers’ views on ICT training requirements, primary schools Principals’ and teachers’ views on ICT training requirements, post-primary schools Use of computers for lesson preparation Resources provided by mainstream primary teachers using ICT Use of the internet in planning and preparation for teaching, by subject Scoilnet visits by teachers. The most popular sections of Scoilnet among teachers Teachers’ ratings of Scoilnet Teachers’ views on what Scoilnet should contain Use and related proficiency of applications in teaching Extent to which mainstream teachers plan for the use of ICT Organisation of teaching and learning during use of ICT 23 28 29 34 41 42 43 44 54 54 58 62 62 77 77 81 82 86 87 90 91 93 94 95 96 97 110 112 113 ix ICT in Schools Fig. 5. 4 Fig. 5. 5 Fig. 5. 6 Fig. 5. 7 Fig. 5. 8 Fig. 5. 9 Fig. 5. 10 Fig. 5. 11 Fig. 5. 12 Fig. 5. 13 Fig. 5. 14 Fig. 6. 1 Fig. 6. 2 Fig. 6. 3 Fig. 6. 4 Fig. 6. 5 Fig. 6. 6 Fig. 6. 7 Fig. 6. 8 Fig. 6. 9 Fig. 7. 1. Frequency of ICT use to promote learning in curricular areas Frequency of ICT use among mainstream and special class teachers to facilitate development of skills Frequency of use of individual internet resources by internet users Inspectors’ rating of the quality of use of ICT in teaching and learning Students’ proficiency in individual tasks Level of ICT support for students with special educational needs in mainstream classrooms Level of access by students with special educational needs in special-education support settings. Extent to which special-education support team members plan for the use of ICT Inspectors’ observations of the use of ICT to facilitate teaching and learning in special-education support settings Frequency of ICT use in special-education support settings to facilitate development of skills Inspectors’ ratings of the quality of use of ICT in teaching and learning observed in special-education support settings Proficiency and use of applications in teaching Students’ use of computers Students’ ICT skill levels Use of ICT in the planning and preparation of observed lessons Main uses of ICT in teaching and learning in the subjects inspected, as reported by teachers. Frequency of use of computers in teaching Settings in which ICT is used in classrooms Use of the internet and applications, by subject area Inspectors’ rating of the quality of use of ICT in teaching and learning observed International student-computer ratios from PISA 2003 114 115 119 122 125 126 127 128 128 129 132 143 146 147 156 157 158 159 162 164 179 x Foreword. Information and communication technology has brought profound changes to almost all aspects of our lives in recent years. It has transformed activities as basic as how we work, communicate with each other, treat illnesses, travel, shop and enjoy our leisure time. The pace of change shows no sign of slowing: indeed, the development of ICT and its applications to areas such as the integration of media, are continuing at even faster rates than heretofore. In a relatively short period of time, ICT skills have become as fundamental to living a full life as being able to read, write and compute. Ireland has been a leading player in the development of the ICT industry. We have been a leading exporter of ICT hardware and software, and many of the key businesses in the industry have important bases here. Like other countries, we have also recognised that if our young people are to live full lives in a world transformed by ICT, they need to have opportunities to acquire and develop ICT skills from an early age. Since the late 1990s, we have made considerable investments in ICT infrastructure in schools, and in training for teachers and other professionals. Until now, little national research evidence has been published on the impact that the new technologies have had on schools and especially on teaching and learning. This report examines the extent to which ICT has been used in schools at both primary and post-primary levels and, more importantly, assesses the impact that ICT has had on teaching and learning, including the ways in which ICT is used to support the learning of students with special educational needs. The evaluation shows that while much progress has been achieved in the roll-out of ICT in schools, considerable challenges remain. The report presents findings and recommendations that will be of interest to teachers, principals, school support services, curriculum developers and policy-makers. I hope that it will inform debate and policy decisions on how we can ensure that young people have the skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary to benefit from the opportunities presented by this powerful technology in the years ahead. Eamon Stack Chief Inspector xi ICT in Schools xii Executive summary xiii ICT in Schools Executive summary. An evaluation of the infrastructure, planning and use of information and communications technology in teaching and learning was conducted by the Inspectorate in primary and post-primary schools during the school year 2005/06. The objectives of the evaluation were: †¢ to examine the extent to which ICT was used in primary and post-primary schools †¢ to evaluate the impact of ICT on teaching and learning †¢ to assess the ICT skills of students at selected points in the education system and to obtain their views on their experience of ICT in their schooling †¢ to obtain the views of principals and teachers on their ICT skills and their opinions of the impact and future role of ICT in education †¢ to make recommendations for policy development regarding ICT in schools. xiv Executive summary. The evaluation methods comprised: †¢ a national survey of primary (234) and post-primary (110) principals †¢ a national survey of primary (1,162) and post-primary (800) teachers †¢ case-study school evaluations by inspectors (32 primary schools, 20 post-primary schools) †¢ observations during classroom inspections (77 primary schools) †¢ observations during subject inspections (111 post-primary schools) †¢ a follow-up on-line survey of teachers in case-study post-primary schools. Summary of main findings The findings and recommendations are summarised here and are elaborated in chapter 7. Infrastructure †¢ The student-computer ratio (SCR) in Irish schools is 9. 1:1 at primary level and 7:1 at post-primary level. Information available from the OECD suggests that countries that have taken the lead in the provision of ICT in schools are aiming for or achieving a SCR of 5:1. †¢ In the main, schools make effective use of the grants provided by the DES for developing their ICT systems. However, schools generally spend considerably more on ICT than the sums made available through these grants schemes. †¢ The lack of technical support and maintenance is a significant impediment to the development of ICT in schools. †¢ At primary level, computer rooms are generally a feature of the larger schools. However, access by students to computers was found to be superior where the computers were located in the classrooms. At the post-primary level there is a greater permeation of computers in specialist rooms than in general classrooms. †¢ Schools were found to use a limited range of ICT peripherals, mainly printers, scanners, and digital cameras. Digital projectors were found in post-primary schools. At primary level, interactive whiteboards were present in a small number of schools. †¢ Schools that made dedicated computer facilities available to teachers reported that it led to the use of more high-quality and creative teaching resources in classrooms. xv ICT in Schools Planning †¢ Responsibility for ICT in a school can lie with an ICT steering committee, the principal, the deputy principal, an ICT co-ordinator, or a combination of these personnel. Greater efficiency is achieved where a named person has responsibility for ICT within a school and where their role is clearly defined. †¢ The majority (71%) of primary schools surveyed, but fewer than half (46%) of post-primary schools, were found to have a written ICT plan. These plans tend to concentrate more on infrastructural issues than on how ICT can be used to enhance teaching and learning. †¢ Most schools (83% of primary schools, 87% of post-primary schools) were found to have an acceptable-use policy (AUP). This is a product of the requirements of the Schools Broadband Access Programme and the safety-awareness initiatives of the NCTE. It is also an indication of the seriousness that schools attach to the risks associated with the use of the internet. †¢ The majority of teachers make some use of ICT in lesson planning and preparation. Newly qualified teachers are more likely to use ICT for this purpose than their more experienced colleagues. However, fewer teachers were found to plan for the use of ICT in teaching and learning. At the post-primary level, planning for the use of ICT in teaching varies between subjects. The programmes for Transition Year, LCVP and LCA specifically encourage planning for the use of ICT in teaching and learning. Teachers of these programmes regularly reported that their involvement also encouraged them to use ICT in their teaching with other class groups. †¢ School principals and teachers identified the provision and maintenance of hardware in schools and the provision of professional development opportunities in ICT as being strategically important for the development of ICT in their school. Generic programmes of professional development, because of their wider appeal, were found to have a greater take-up among teachers than topic-specific programmes. Teaching and learning †¢ Only 30% of primary teachers and 25% of post-primary teachers rated their ability as either â€Å"intermediate† or â€Å"advanced† with regard to using teaching and learning methods that are facilitated by ICT. Recently qualified teachers had a higher perception of their ICT skills than more experienced teachers. †¢ At the primary level, the inspectors reported evidence of the use of ICT to facilitate teaching and learning in 59% of the classrooms visited. However, the inspectors observed ICT actually being used in only 22% of the lessons observed. Nearly a quarter of all inspections showed a competent or optimal level of performance in relation to the use of ICT in the classroom. xvi Executive summary †¢ Where ICT is used in primary classrooms it predominates in core curricular areas, such as English and Mathematics, and in Social, Environmental and Scientific Education (SESE). †¢ The evaluation found that many fifth-class students in primary schools do not have the competence to complete basic tasks on the computer. While most students reported being able to perform many of the most basic computer tasks, such as turning a computer on and off and opening or saving a file, more than 30% reported that they were not able to print a document or to go on the internet by themselves. Almost half (47%) reported not being able to create a document by themselves. The majority did not know how to create a presentation (72%), use a spreadsheet (86%), or send an attachment with an e-mail message (88%). Competence in the use of ICT is limited for the most part to basic ICT skills, centred on the use of word-processing. †¢ Only 18% of the post-primary lessons observed by the inspectors involved an ICT-related activity. Students’ interaction with the technology was observed in only about a quarter of these instances. The most common ICT-related activity observed was the use of a data projector to make a presentation to a class group. Inspectors judged that effective integration of ICT in teaching and learning was occurring in approximately half of the lessons in which the use of ICT was observed (i. e. in approximately 11% of all lessons observed). †¢ Dedicated ICT lessons at the post-primary level are more prevalent among first-year classes, and are provided less frequently as students progress towards the Junior Certificate. The majority of schools concentrate on providing students with such lessons in their Transition Year, in the LCVP, and in the LCA. †¢ High levels of integration of ICT were found at the post-primary level in the science and applied science subjects and in subjects in the social studies I group. 1 Subjects were also identified that rarely made use of ICT, the most notable being Irish. †¢ The evaluation found that fifth-year students in post-primary schools had the confidence to perform many basic computer operations by themselves, for example saving, printing, deleting, opening and editing a document. However, it also found that they generally needed some assistance to perform more complicated tasks, such as moving files, copying files to external storage devices, and writing and sending e-mail. A relatively low proportion of these students reported being able to create a multimedia presentation. Students required most help with attaching a file to an e-mail message, constructing a web page, or dealing with computer viruses. While the post-primary inspectors generally commented positively on the students’ ICT work that they observed, they were also concerned that the tasks undertaken by the students were largely word-processing and presentation tasks. 1 Social Studies I group includes History; Geography; Art, Craft, and Design; and Music. Social Studies II group includes Religious Education; Physical Education; Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE); and Social, Personal and Health Education (SPHE). xvii ICT in Schools †¢ ICT is widely used to facilitate the provision by schools of special education. Generally, ICT is used more frequently by members of the special-education team rather than by mainstream class teachers. The emphasis in students’ engagement with ICT in special-education settings is mainly on the support of literacy. Support for ICT †¢ The level of awareness among teachers of the ICT advisory service is generally low, with fewer than half the respondents at both the primary and the post-primary level reporting an awareness of it. Awareness is higher, however, among ICT co-ordinators than among other teachers. †¢ The use of the ICT advisory service is also low. At the primary level only 22% of all respondents reported having used the service, while at the post-primary level the corresponding figure was 15%. Summary of key recommendations for policy-makers and policy advisors †¢ The level of ICT infrastructure in schools needs to be improved. Specifically, Ireland should be working towards equipping not just all schools but all classrooms with an appropriate level of ICT infrastructure. Consideration should be given to equipping all classrooms with a computer for use by the teacher, broadband internet access with adequate bandwidth, and a fixed data projector and screen for use by the teacher in presentations. Furthermore, to ensure appropriate access to ICT by students, Ireland should strive to reduce its student-computer ratio (SCR) from the present 9. 1:1 in primary schools and 7:1 in post-primary schools. International evidence suggests that countries that have taken a lead in this area are aiming for or achieving a ratio of 5:1 or less in all schools. †¢ Improvements in ICT infrastructure will need to be supported by the introduction of a national ICT technical support and maintenance system for schools. Schools also need to be provided with the capacity to regularly upgrade their own ICT infrastructure. †¢ The pedagogical dimension of the ICT advisors’ role in an education centre could be more appropriately provided by the relevant school support services, in liaison with the ICT school coordinators. The technical dimension of the ICT advisors’ role could be provided in a number of ways, including for example, by having a commercially supplied ICT maintenance and support for schools. With an effective IT maintenance system in place, the pedagogical role of ICT coordinators within schools could be enhanced and supported with appropriate training. xviii Executive summary †¢ Support services should give priority to the integration of ICT in teaching and learning. There is an opportunity for such services to work more closely with schools, and with school ICT coordinators in particular, to determine staff training needs and assist in organising appropriate professional development courses for teachers. Support service personnel should aim to be proactive in providing examples of how ICT can be used to facilitate teaching and learning in any programmes provided. Furthermore, course organisers should take greater account of the wide range of ICT abilities and experiences commonly found in groups of teachers and should provide differentiated ICT learning experiences for course participants. †¢ Additional guidance should be provided to schools and teachers of students with special educational needs so that the needs of learners may be matched more appropriately with the technology available. †¢ There needs to be an increased emphasis on the application of ICT in teaching and learning in teacher education at pre-service, induction and continuing professional development stages. It is recommended that teacher education departments in third-level colleges should provide student teachers with the skills necessary to effectively use ICT in teaching and foster in them a culture of using ICT in their work. Consideration should also be given to extending and expanding significantly the current range of professional development courses available for teachers. A major focus of such an initiative should be on how ICT may be integrated fully in the teaching and learning of specific subjects and curricular areas. The ICT Framework for Schools, which the NCCA will issue in the near future, will be a further assistance to schools in this regard. Key recommendations for schools †¢ Schools and teachers should regularly review the use of ICT in their work. In particular, they should strive to ensure greater integration of ICT within teaching and learning activities in classrooms and other settings. †¢ Teachers should exploit the potential of ICT to develop as wide a range of students’ skills as possible, including the higher-order skills of problem-solving, synthesis, analysis, and evaluation. †¢ Principals should encourage and facilitate suitable ICT training for teachers. Schools should liase with relevant support services and should endeavour to establish mechanisms to facilitate the sharing of good practice among members of the staff. †¢ Schools should endeavour to provide all their students with an  appropriate and equitable level of experience of ICT at all class levels: at the primary level and at both junior and senior cycle at the post-primary level. xix ICT in Schools †¢ Schools should plan for the maintenance and upgrading of their ICT systems. †¢ Computer rooms, where they exist, should be used to maximum effect. Staff members and students should be provided with adequate access to the internet. Post-primary schools in particular should aim to increase the permeation of ICT in general classrooms. †¢ A designated staff member should be responsible for ICT development. An ICT plan should be developed, using a consultative process, and an appropriate-use policy (AUP) should also be established. †¢ Teachers should endeavour to integrate ICT more in their planning and preparation for teaching. †¢ Schools need to ensure that ICT is used to support students with special educational needs in the most effective and appropriate way. Schools need to ensure that they match students’ needs to the most appropriate technology available, and that ICT is used to support not only the acquisition of literacy but the widest range of students’ needs. †¢ Schools should exploit the benefits to be had from ICT in their assessment procedures and also in their administrative practices. xx Chapter 1 ICT in primary and post-primary education in Ireland Part 1 Introduction 1 ICT in Schools †¢ Part 1 Introduction 1. 1 Introduction Information and communications technology (ICT) is an accepted element in all our lives and has a central role to play in education. Since the appearance of the first Government policy on ICT in education in 1997, a substantial investment has been made in ICT facilities and training in Irish schools. In Ireland, as in other countries, the debate about ICT in education concentrates on the potential impact of ICT on teaching and learning and on the measures that need to be adopted to ensure that the potential of ICT to enrich students’ learning experience is realised. This Inspectorate report presents the findings of a major evaluation of the impact of ICT on teaching and

Christians and the Spanish Inquisition essays

Christians and the Spanish Inquisition essays Ferdinand and Isabella used the Inquisition to eliminate opposition in Spain. Their thoughts were that by eliminating the Jews, Muslims, and New Christians in Spain they would gain unity, wealth, and power. They wanted to make a Christian and only a Christian Spain. Since Ferdinand and Isabella were married they strived to make Spain a whole. With Ferdinand ruling Aragon and Isabella ruling Castile they united Spain as one. Soon Ferdinand and Isabella had the regions of Granada and Portugal as part of Spain. But Ferdinand and Isabella wanted to increase their authority over their kingdom through religion as well. Ferdinand new that the church controlled large amounts of land and also served significant roles in the political system, he took these very important things into major consideration. Isabella on the other hand, "...had a genuine concern for religious reform and believed in their responsibility for the spiritual life of their subjects and people."(Ovid 3). Ferdinand and Is abella didn't think of using the Inquisition to purify Spain until a priest named Tomas de Torquemada brought it to their attention. Torquemada was Isabella's confessor or spiritual leader. Torquemada convinced Ferdinand and Isabella that once the Inquisition was in place they could eliminate all non-Catholic believers. He bribed them with the thought that they,"...could use it to solidify the supremacy of Catholicism in Spanish life...the inquisition would promise them consolidation on their political control over the country and would increase the wealth of the crown through confiscation."(The Inquisition 50-51) Ferdinand and Isabella were now convinced that by putting the Inquisition to action they could gain wealth, power, and full unity of Spain. The Inquisition was so closely associated with the government that it became a department of state. (The Inquisition 43) The Jewish population in Spain was a very large one that caused lots of envy. Jews h...

The Factors Affecting Inflation

The Factors Affecting Inflation Free Online Research Papers By inflation one generally means rise in prices. To be more correct inflation is persistent rise in the general price level rather than a once-for-all rise in it, while deflation is persistent falling price. These days economies of all countries whether underdeveloped, developing as well developed suffers from inflation. Inflation or persistent rising prices are major problem today in world. Because of many reasons, first, the rate of inflation these years are much high than experienced earlier periods. Second, Inflation in these years coexists with high rate of unemployment, which is a new phenomenon and made it difficult to control inflation. Depending upon the reason of inflation, it can be divided in many types as (1.) Demand-Pull inflation, (2.) Cost-Push inflation, (3) Structural inflation. Inflation is very unpopular happening in an economy. Opinion survey conducted in India, USA and many other countries reveal that inflation is the most important concern of the people as it badly affects their standard of living. So why it is called Inflation is enemy number one. As India is also facing same problem so under my studies I want to find out the causes of inflation and the measure which the RBI using to curb it as rising CRR, repo rate, reverse repo rate etc will do as planned by RBI or need to use some other tools. And to compare it with context of other economies problem. The data for analysis will be collected from different surveys done by RBI and economic surveys and other surveys and also from the survey reports of other countries to compare it globally. Then I analyze the data collected for India and global context. Then finding and discussion limitation and scope for further researches. INTRODUCTION By inflation mean a process of rising prices. A situation is described as inflationary when either the prices or the supply of money are rising, but in practice both will rise together. In the Keynesian sense True inflation begins when the elasticity of supply of output in response to increase in money supply has fallen to zero or when output is unresponsive to changes in money supply. If there is full employment then condition will of clearly inflationary, if there is increase in the Money Supply. Inflation can take many form as: Deflation: is the opposite of inflation when fall in prices occurs. Reflation: is moderate degree of controlled inflation. Disinflation: is process of brining down prices moderately from their high level. Stagflation: is state where there is stagnation as well as inflation both side by side as prevailed in India in 1974-75 and 1979-80. Depending upon the reason of inflation, it can be divided in many types as (1.) Demand-Pull inflation: This represents a situation where there is increase in Aggregate Demand for resources either from the government or the entrepreneurs or the households. Result of this is that the pressure of Demand can’t be met by the Currently available Aggregate Supply which result in Aggregate Demand > Aggregate Supply which is bound to generate inflationary pressure in the economy. (2.) Cost-Push inflation: This represent the condition where even though there is no increase in Aggregate Demand, prices may still rise. This may happen if the costs of especially wage cost rise. (3.) Structural inflation: This type of inflation occurs because of change in structure of economies as happened in India from Agricultural Structure i.e. Green Revolution to Industrialization. Thus because of change in Economic Structure gives rise to increase in prices thus generate inflationary pressure. Inflation is very unpopular happening in an economy. Opinion survey conducted in India, USA and many other countries reveal that inflation is the most important concern of the people as it badly affects their standard of living. So why it is called Inflation is enemy number one. India is facing the problem of inflationary pressure because of the increase in Aggregate Demand while Aggregate Supply is respectively constant. The inflationary pressure faced by Indian Economy is due to Demand-Pull inflation i.e. Aggregate Demand > Aggregate Supply. Thus to curb inflation need to fill the gap between Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply. For this either need to increase AS or decrease AD that can hamper economic development. Thus to increase AS is the best tool which can be used. To increase AS either need to increase production capacity of all current production unit of to built new production plants. But as quoted in an survey done by RBI that all the production plants are running at their full production capacity thus all resources all-full employed the other way is to built new plant but to do this will take at least 18months to 2years. Thus meanwhile need to decrease Money Supply, which is opted by RBI. As in short run it’s not possible to meet the gap between AD and AS thus RBI is planning to decrease liquidity by reducing Money Supply from the market. For this it has been planned that by decreasing CRR, repo rate and reverse repo rate Liquidity from the market will be drained. CRR i.e. Cash Reserve Ratio is the percentage of deposit that a commercial bank need to keep with RBI by which RBI control liquidity in the market and create Money Supply. Currently CRR is 6.5% in the Indian Context. Repo Rate: is the rate at which RBI lends money to other commercial Banks. RBI planned that Liquidity from the market can be drained by decreasing money supply and to do so it is increasing CRR, repo rate, reverse repo rate and taking other measure like that. But interest is that whether hike to crr and other factors will curb inflation and what are the other factors, which are influencing inflation. My purpose of study is that every country faces the problem of inflation whether developed, underdeveloped or developing. Here I want to concentrate whether the Indian Government and RBI taking the measures to curb inflation are correct or not? Will it actually bring down the prices? Because this is not only of our government or of a particular country but globally faced and the principles on which economy works are same for all the economies. By this research, it will be beneficial not only for Indian context but for all countries as on this my whole emphasis is on the causes of inflation and measures to control it and whether the measure taken by RBI are effective or not? OBJECTIVE India is facing the problem of inflationary pressure because of the increase in Aggregate Demand while Aggregate Supply is respectively constant. The inflationary pressure faced by Indian Economy is due to Demand-Pull inflation i.e. Aggregate Demand > Aggregate Supply. Thus to curb inflation need to fill the gap between Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply. For this either need to increase AS or decrease AD that can hamper economic development. Inflation is very unpopular happening in an economy. Opinion survey conducted in India, USA and many other countries reveal that inflation is the most important concern of the people as it badly affects their standard of living. So why it is called Inflation is enemy number one. RBI planned that Liquidity from the market can be drained by decreasing money supply and to do so it is increasing CRR, repo rate, reverse repo rate and taking other measure like that. But interest is that whether hike to crr and other factors will curb inflation and what are the other factors, which are influencing inflation. My purpose of study is that every country faces the problem of inflation whether developed, underdeveloped or developing. Here I want to concentrate whether the Indian Government and RBI taking the measures to curb inflation are correct or not? Will it actually bring down the prices? Because this is not only of our government or of a particular country but globally faced and the principles on which economy works are same for all the economies. By this research, it will be beneficial not only for Indian context but for all countries as on this my whole emphasis is on the causes of inflation and measures to control it and whether the measure taken by RBI are effective or not? LITERATURE REVIEW Books Journals: ? Modern Economic Theory by K. K. DEWETT. ? Macro Economics By H. L. Ahuja. ? Principles of Economics By Marshall A. ? Clayton, G., Gilbert, J. C., Sedgwick, R.: Monetary Theory and Monetary Policy in 1970’s. ? Madan B. K., Role of Monetary Policy in Economic Development. Websites: ? wikipedia.com/ ? http://moneycontrol.com/researchproject/fn RESEARCH QUESTION ? Will hike to CRR i.e. Cash Reserve Ratio curb inflation? ? What are the factors, which are affecting inflation? ? Whether rise to inflation is due to increase in Money Supply or due to gap between AD and AS? ? Whether tool used to drain liquidity from the market will curb inflation through decreasing money supply? ? Does the situation which is faced by the Indian Economy is comparable to World Economy? RESEARCH MODEL INFLATION is a function of Aggregate Demand, Aggregate Supply, and Money Supply i.e. I = f (AD, AS, MS) Where AD = Aggregate Demand, AS = Aggregate Supply, MS = Money Supply. HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS 1 Null Hypothesis: whether prices are rising due to increase in money supply or due to increase in Aggregate Demand. Alternative Hypothesis: Prices are rising due to increase in AS not due to increase in Money Supply. HYPOTHESIS 2 Null Hypothesis: whether hike to CRR will help to curb inflation via decreasing money supply? Alternative Hypothesis: hike to CRR will not curb inflation though may drain liquidity from the market. HYPOTHESIS 3 Null Hypothesis: whether hike to Repo rates; reverse repo rate will help to curb inflation via decreasing money supply? Alternative Hypothesis: hike to Repo rate, reverse repo rate will not curb inflation though may drain liquidity from the market. HYPOTHESIS 4 Null Hypothesis: whether the problem of inflation faced by a developing country India is same as those of other country and developed countries and under developed countries. Alternative Hypothesis: The problem of inflation differ from countries to other countries whether it for two developing country. RESEARCH DESIGN Sample and Data Description: The sample would be the data with respect to Indian Economy ? The data of CRR and inflation of last 50years of Indian economy. ? The data of Repo rate, reverse repo rate and inflation of last 50years of Indian Economy. ? The Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply Data of last 50 years and respective inflation data. ? The Money Supply Data of last 50 years and respective inflation data. The same data will be collected in context of ? Other Developing companies like China, Pakistan etc. ? Developed Counties like USA, UK etc. ? Underdeveloped Counties like Bangladesh etc. Data collection Technique The whole project report is based on secondary data and data will be collected from ? RBI websites ? Economic Surveys ? Finance Journals ? Official Gazettes. ? Newspapers. ? Same respective data will also be collected for other countries from their respective source. Data Analysis Technique The following statistical techniques can be used while analyzing data for different perspective: ? Percentage relationship ? Ki-Square ? Correlation. LIMITATION OF STUDIES ? Time Constraint: Because of Shortage of time research work can’t be completed properly though I had worked hard to select the area, which is of my interest, and need research on that as no research had been done on that context. But due to lag of time I would not be able to cover all aspects but will try my level best. ? Resources Constraint: Because of unavailability of proper resources not possible to collect all data required for complete study of the effect of different factors on inflation. ? Data Reliability: As topic of project is such that it can only be completed on secondary data. As secondary data will be used so reliability of data is tough but it is too tough to get the primary data almost impossible at that level. ? Knowledge Constraint: AS because of one major constraint that is knowledge many topics remained untouched. There remain many more topics which had not been covered under this topic though relate to it is because of so many other constraining. SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDIES As because of some constraint some topic remained untouched and working of economy always changes depending upon conditions prevailing in own country and also relative to world economy so there are always have scope for further research. Also a research had some limitation may be because of time, Resources, knowledge etc which gives rise to scope for further findings. Here under my studies I had not covered many other factors of price rise expect mismatch in AD and AS and rise in Money Supply, which gives rooms for further researches. Also I will compare it only with the result of other countries in context of India but same fluctuation can be correlated with the working of world economy or other countries. Thus t also gives rise to further researches. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Journals: ? Modern Economic Theory by K. K. DEWETT. ? Macro Economics By H. L. Ahuja. ? Principles of Economics By Marshall A. Websites: ? wikipedia.com/ Research Papers on The Factors Affecting InflationPETSTEL analysis of IndiaThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationDefinition of Export QuotasResearch Process Part OneBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseGenetic Engineering